Mechanisms for Optical Limiting

Mechanisms for ocular LimitingChapter 22.1. Reverse Saturable AbsorptionIn the middle 1960s shortly after the invention of the laser, many researchers were investigating dyes for potential application to Q-switching of the laser cavity. For this application, dyes were sought that would bleach to transp bency under intense blaze (saturable absorbers). Guiliano and Hess 2a in 1967 were investigating vat dyes and their modified cousins and noted some examples that not only did not bleach to transparency but instead darkened at towering intensities. This was the first recognition of the property of reverse saturable density (RSA).Reverse saturable submergence generally arises in a molecular system when the excited introduce compactness come home section is considerabler than the ground verbalise cross section. The process can be understood by considering a system that is sculptural victimisation three vibronically broadened electronic ability levels, as shown in figure 2.1. The cross section for absorption from the ground state 1 is 1. 2 is the cross section for absorption from the first excited state 2 to the second excited state 3. The lifetime of the first excited state is 2 (seconds). enroll 2.1 Three level and Four level models for RSAAs let down is absorbed by the actual, the first excited state begins to become populated and contributes to the total absorption cross section. If 2 is smaller than 1, then the material becomes more transparent or bleaches i.e. it is a saturable absorber.If 2 is larger than 1, then the total absorption increases, and the material is known as a reverse saturable absorber. This behavior is shown in figure 2.2Figure 2.2 Plot of the sequent transport versus the contagious bulk of a characteristic three level RSA material.The change in intensity of a shine as it propagates through the material is, (2.1)Where z is the boot traversed, NT is the total number of active molecules per area in the slice dz, N2 is the population of level 2 and the population of level 3 has been neglected.Initially, the material obeys Beers law when 2 is unpopulated, and the transmission is continual as the incident fluence is increased. The slope is given by. At a sufficiently high fluence, however, the first excited state 2 becomes substantially populated and in the limit of complete ground state depletion the slope again becomes constant at the new value of. The ocular limiting action is not actually limiting, as the fluence, which is transmitted, is still increasing with increasing incident fluence, but it does so more slowly. If the ratio 2/1, is sufficiently large, however, the new transmission will be small and in a properly designed system the dynamic range of the sensor will be greatly extended. The three level diagrams call the simplest case for RSA materials but can generally only be applied for subnanosecond pulses and under circumstances such that transitions from the second excited state are neg ligible.The zip states involved in three level materials usually consists of singlet states and the transitions are all allowed. The transition cross sections are therefore large, but a damage is that de-excitation is rapid (2 is small). This necessitates larger intensities for long pulses to activate the nonlinearity through populating the excited electronic state. Fortunately, on longer timescales in some systems, significant intersystem crossing to another(prenominal) states can occur from the first excited state. In this case the five level diagrams shown in figure 2.1 is applicable. The excited state 4 is usually a triplet or other long-lived state, and for long pulses it can act as a metastable state that accumulates population during the pulse. The lifetime of 4 gives an attribute of the maximum pulse width for which the material is efficient to act as an opthalmic clipper ship. Pulses with duration longer than the metastable state allow some of the metastable molecules generated by the leading edge of the pulse to decay to the ground state originally the trailing edge have passed, thereby reducing the RSA. In nigh systems, 3 and 5 are very small and significant populations of 3 and 5 do not accumulate. Therefore, N3 and N5 can be set to zero, considerably simplifying the driving equalitys describing. The equations representing the full five level models are given below by (2.2) (2.3) (2.4) (2.5) (2.6) (2.7)and (2.8)Where h is the vim per photon, I is the intensity of the pulse and stimulated emission has been neglected. The last mentioned assumes that optic coupling to the excited states is well above the bottom of the vibronic manifolds and that relaxation from the optically-coupled states to the bottom of the manifolds occurs on a time scale that is much shorter than the pulse duration. To all told understand the response of an RSA whatchamacallum, these equations must be solved as the pulse propagates through the material. The material parameters necessary to solve the equations are 1, 2, 4, 2, 4 and 24. For optimum optical limiting performance, certain parameters need to be maximized. The ratio of the excited state absorption to the ground state, 2/1, 4/1 should be large to calumniate the transmission of the limiter at high incident intensity.For maximum efficiency, the lifetime of the triplet state (2) and the intersystem crossing rate l/24 should be large to populate the triplet state and maintain the population throughout the pulse. By the apparatus of RSA we get better performance on optical limiting.2.2. Two-Photon Absorption (TPA)Two-photon absorption (TPA) can also be used in a manner similar to RSA to construct optical limiters. In contrast with reverse saturable absorption, TPA is an instantaneous nonlinearity that involves the absorption of photon from the flying field to promote an electron from its initial state to a virtual liaise state, followed by the absorption of a second photon that takes t he electron to its final state. Since the intermediate state for such transitions is virtual, energy need not be conserved in the intermediate state but only in the final state. The mechanism of TPA can be thought of in terms of the three level RSA model for the case where the lifetime of the intermediate state approaches zero and the ground state absorption is extremely low (highly transparent). The intensity of the beam as it traverses the material is (2.9)Where z is the linear absorption coefficient and is the TPA coefficient which is related to the imaginary part of (3) by the equation (SI units) (2.10)Here, is the circular frequency of the optical field, n0 is the linear index of refraction, and c is the speed of light in vacuum. The solution to the propagation equation for = 0 (transparent material at low intensities) is given by (2.11)Where L is the sample length. This clearly demonstrates that the output intensity decreases as the input intensity increases, exactly the beh avior that is desired for an optical limiter. The strength of this reduction is explicitly dependent on the TPA coefficient, the incident intensity and the sample thickness.For TPA, the material response is of the order of an optical cycle and is, therefore, independent of the optical pulse length for a fixed intensity. The device will respond virtually instantaneously to the pulse. On the other hand, because of the limited magnitude of in real materials, high intensities are involve to realize significant TPA. Since the intensity is essentially the energy density divided by the pulse duration, short pulses are required to achieve limiting with TPA for energy densities that may be high enough to damage an optical sensor.2.3. Free-Carrier AbsorptionThis type of limiting occurs in semiconductor materials. erstwhile immune carriers are optically generated in a semiconductor, whether by single photon or two-photon absorption, these electrons (holes) can be promoted to states higher (lower) in the conduction (valence) band by riveting additional photons. This process is often phonon assisted, although depending on the details of the band structure and the frequency of the optical excitation, it may also be direct. The phonon assisted phenomenon is referred to as free-carrier absorption, and it is kindred to excited-state absorption in a molecular system. It is clearly an accumulative nonlinearity, since it depends on the buildup of carrier population in the bands as the incident optical pulse energy is absorbed. Free-carrier absorption always plays some role in the operation of a semiconductor limiter, if the excitation process results in the contemporaries of significant free carrier populations in the bands. While it certainly contributes to the limiter performance and its inclusion is important in the precise modeling of the response of such devices, just as in the case of TPA, its importance typically pales in comparison with nonlinear refractive do, w hether the carriers are generated by single photon or two photon transitions.2.4. Nonlinear RefractionOptical limiters ground on egotism focusing and defocusing form another class of promising devices. The mechanism for these devices may arise from nonlinear refraction associated with carrier generation by either linear or two photon absorption in a semiconductor. Both self focusing and defocusing devices operate by refracting light remote from the sensor as opposed to simply absorbing the incident radiation. Compared to strictly absorbing devices, these limiters can, therefore, potentially yield a larger dynamic range before damage to the limiter itself.Figure 2.3 (a) shows the typical device configuration for a self defocusing limiter, while figure 2.3 (b) shows a similar device based on self focusing. A converging crystalline lens is used to focus the incident radiation so it passes through the nonlinear medium. This lens provides optical gain to the system, allowing the devi ce to activate at low incident intensities. The output passes through an aperture before impinging on the detector. At low input levels, the nonlinear medium has exact effect on the incident beam, and the aperture blocks an insignificant portion of the beam, thus allowing for a low insertion loss for the device. When nonlinear refraction occurs, however, the nonuniform beam write within the medium results in the generation of a spatially nonuniform refractive index. This acts as either a ban or positive lens, depending on the sign of the refractive nonlinearity, causing the incident beam to either defocus or focus.Figure 2.3 (a) Typical self defocusing optical limiter configuration (b) Typical self focusing optical limiter configuration.In a properly designed system, this self lensing results in significant energy blocked by the system aperture, thereby protecting the sensor. The location of the nonlinear medium is critical to the operation of the refractive limiting device. A se lf-focusing limiter works best if the nonlinear medium is located approximately a Rayleigh range before the intermediate focus of the device. When the focusing lens is bring on the effective central length of the device is reduced, and hence a larger beam appears at the exit aperture. For a self-defocusing material, the optimum geometry is approximately one Rayleigh range after the focus. This geometry dependence can be exploited to dress not only the sign of the nonlinear refraction in a given medium, but the magnitude as well. This is the principle behind the so-called Z-scan technique, which has been pioneered by Van Stryland and coworkers 2b,2c.The technique consists of moving the nonlinear medium through the focal region of a tightly focused beam while measuring the contagion through an aperture placed in the far field of the focal plane. When the medium is far before the focal plane, no self-lensing occurs. As the medium approaches the focal plane, the high intensity begi ns to induce a lens in the medium. For a negative nonlinearity, this lens tends to collimate the beam, thereby increasing the transmittance through the aperture. Near the focal plane, even though the intensity is highest, the influence of the induced lens is minimized, resulting in a transmittance comparable to the linear transmittance. This is similar to placing a thin lens at the focus of a beam this results in minimal effect on the far field beam pattern. As the sample is moved beyond the focal plane, the negative lens tends to increase the beam divergence, resulting in a decrease in the aperture transmittance. As the medium is moved still farther from focus, the intensity again becomes weak enough that the induced lensing is negligible. This sequence results in a change in transmittance with a characteristic peak, followed by a null, followed by a valley as the sample is moved from the input lens, through focus, toward the output lens. For a positive nonlinearity, the pattern c onsists of a valley, a null, and then a peak. Thus, the sign of the nonlinearity is readily determined. While nonlinear absorption has been neglected in this discussion, if present, it must also be accounted for. This is readily done by removing the aperture in the limiter and collecting all the light transmitted by the nonlinear material. This measurement is then insensitive to nonlinear refraction. The response in this case is a valley symmetrically located about the focal plane. It should be noted that nonlinear absorption and induced scattering cannot be distinguished by this technique. The general exercise of the Z-scan for a positive index change, negative index change, and a nonlinear absorber or scatterer is shown in figure 2.4.Figure 2.4 Schematic representation of z-scan results for a negative refractive nonlinearity (dashed curve) and a positive refractive nonlinearity (dotted curve). Both curves have been corrected for absorption. The solid curve shows the result of rem oving the aperture from the measurement apparatus and collecting all the transmitted light, thus isolating the nonlinear absorption 1e.2.5. Induced ScatteringScattering roots from interaction of light with small centers which may be physical particles or simple interfaces sandwiched between non-excited and excited molecular groups. The size of the scattering centers determines whether the scattering will be quite directional or reasonably uniform. Transmission of a medium, for a given solid angle, decreases when scattering centers are induced in the medium by an optical manoeuver. Therefore, this phenomenon of scattering induced by optical signal may be applied to manufacture of optical limiters for sensor protection. Optical limiters based on induced scattering are usually focused on liquid media, as the phenomenon is usually reversible in these media. That is to say, the liquid in the excited state can return to equilibrium with ease in the absence seizure of chemical or structur al decomposition. However, in solids, usually irreversible decomposition processes generate the scattering centers which can lead to degradation in the devices linear operation.When light is incident on a particle, the electric charges within the particle oscillate due to its interaction with the electric field. Radiations are then caused by the oscillation. In 1899, Lord Rayleigh originally presented the analytic expression and theory of the elastic scattering of light from particles with dimensions smaller than the wavelength of light. Rayleigh scattering is the name given to the phenomenon. This applies only to particles whose dimensions are quite smaller than the wavelength of light or which are non-absorbing. However, in 1908, Mie developed a theory for particles with dimensions comparable to the wavelength of light or greater 2d. The transmitted intensity equations of the Mie scattering are notably more intricate than of Rayleigh scattering. In Mie scattering, a bigger percent age of the unconnected radiation is in forward direction as the size of the scattering particles increases, implying that limiting based on Mie scattering will not be as effective as Rayleigh scattering.2.6. PhotorefractionTwo devices, namely seamless-beam excisor and the beam fanning limiter based on the photorefractive effect are used to limit coherent optical radiation. Materials showing photorefraction should have a nonzero (2). The traditional photorefractive mechanism is based on the photorefractive crystal which possesses blockheaded levels that can be excited optically to generate free charge in the conduction or valence band. In a material showing photorefraction, when two coherent beams interfere, additional mobile charge are generated at the peaks of the intensity pattern than at the valleys through photoexcitation of the deep levels of the crsytal. These charges which are photoexcited at the peaks diffuse into the valleys ensuing a variation of charge spatially, in cor respondence to the materials interference pattern. These charges results in an electrostatic space-charge field which gives rise to a change in refractive index through the electro-optic effect in a properly oriented crystal. Energy coupling and energy exchange can then be achieved between the two beams through the grating generated, which is 90 degrees phase shifted from the intensity of the photon field.A high intensity coherent beam when incident singly on a photorefractive crystal, the energy can be coupled into a large amount of low intensity scattered beams. Fields with new wave vectors are generated inside the crystal by the scattering of the incident beam at the crystal imperfections. The photorefractive gratings are then produced by the interference of the incident field with these scattered fields. Optical signal can later be coupled from the incident beam to the scattered beams through diffraction from these gratings. The light gets preferentially scattered to one side of the crystal as there is a preferred direction of energy transfer for photorefractive gratings which is determined by the direction of the c-axis of the crystal and the charge carriers sign. This photorefractive beam fanning phenomenon can be quite efficient in reducing the intensity of the transmitted beam. Construction of an optical limiter using this beam fanning process has been demonstrated by Cronin-Golomb and Yariv 2e.The photorefractive excisor is another device which provides a weak seed beam to interfere with the incident beam. It is assembled to protect the sensor in such a way that the photorefractive grating produced by the interference of the primary beam with the seed beam at high intensities couples energy from the strong incident beam to the weak seed beam. The speed and efficiency of the device is thus improved.2.7. SummaryAll of the nonlinear phenomena discussed above can be used for optical limiting, and figure 2.5 schematically illustrates the application of som e of these processes. Figure 2.5 (a) depicts the use of induced absorption, such as reverse saturable absorption, two-photon absorption, and free-carrier absorption. Figures 2.5(b) and 2.5(d) represent, respectively, a self-defocusing limiter, self-focusing limiter, and an induced scattering limiter. Finally, figures 2.5(e) and 2.5(f) illustrate a photorefractive beam fanning limiter and a photorefractive excisor device. While it is often the case that any given material will exhibit multiple nonlinear properties, for simplicity the effects of each individual process have been separately depicted in figure 2.5.Figure 2.5 Some optical limiters based on different mechanisms (a) an induced absorption limiter (b) Self defocusing limiter (c) Self focusing limiter (d) Induced scattering limiter (e) Beam fanning limiter (f) Photorefractive excisor device 1e.

The Causes Of The Spanish Civil War History Essay

The Causes Of The Spanish courteousized fight History EssayThe Spanish civil war is frequently remembered as a crucial and important moment in the history of Spanish people. To be possible to beneathstand how thousands of persons were kil conduct during this war, it must be ask why the Spanish civil war broke out in first place. In fact, in that location argon five main reasons or causes (fig.1) which almost simultaneously led to the civil war in Spain in 1936. Before the Spanish civil war Spain was command by the king merely due the great slump that drove the country into an economic collapse and massive unemployment in Spain and as a result the king was forced to abdicate on 14 April 1931 and Spain becomes a re world.The sensitive republic emerges and immediately faced a number of major problems due the current dowerTwo important regions in Spain wanted emancipation Catalonia and the Basque region. Had their requests been successful, it would involve forgo to the break up of Spain.The Roman Catholic Church was hostile to the republic and the republic was hostile to the highly influential Roman Catholic Church.The regime believed that the army had too much say in politics and determined to reduce its influence.Spain was primarily an agricultural nation and the 1930s depression had hit prices for crops. immemorial exports such as olive oil and wine down in value and previously used agricultural land fell into disuse.The little persistence that Spain had was also hit by the Depression. Iron and steel were especially hit as no one had the money to pay for the products. Iron production fell by 33% and steel by 50%.Unemployment in both agriculture and industry rose and those in work had to put up with a cut in wages as the economy struggled to survive the Depression.The majority rule faced losing the support of those whose support it desperately needed the working screen out.(http//www.historylearningsite.co.uk/causes_spanish_civil_war.htm)There are several versions or way to tell about the Spanish civil war however this essay will focus only in the causes of the Spanish civil war and how theses causes had led to the Spanish civil war.Figure1 The main five causes of the Spanish civil war (http//www.scribd.com/doc/2530517/Causes-of-the-Spanish-Civil-War-Conclusion)The main causes for the beginning of the Spanish Civil War and why these causes had lead Spain into the Spanish civil warThe Political Situation in Spain (1931 to 1936).Disparate most of the other countries of Western Europe at that time, the Spain arouse never completed its revolution. Significant economic and affectionate sectors of the country remained under the witness of the feudal classes. In other hand the weak and vacillate bourgeoisie was unsuccessful in take effective measures to insure social and economical progress while the economic and political privileges of the dominant classes were remaining wing intact.As a result of this the progress and d iscipline of some sectors were suppressed during the 19th one C until the situation of 1931. On April 13 of 1931 unsolvable contradictions between the financial, landowning and the popular forces reached the focalize of rupture and the king was forced to abdicate giving place to the guerrilla Republic.Throughout the year 1932 the working class was divided into social democracy and nihilist tendencies. The communist Party was non sufficiently strong to assert its leadership of the labour movement. (http//www.mltranslations.org/Spain/civilwar.htm)In 1933, in response to the actual situation, during two years, the political sympathies unleashed a severe campaign of repression and terror known as the Bienio Negro. Furthermore, in October 1934 the formation of the favorite Front was begun with an extensive popular uprising against the presidential term, especially in Asturias, capital of Spain and Barcelona (see fig. 2). The formation of the Popular Front had strong communistic support and participation.On 15th January 1936, Manuel Azaa helped to establish a coalition of parties on the political left to play off the national elections taking place on following month. This included the Socialist Party (PSOE), Communist Party (PCE) and the Republican Union Party. The Popular Front, as the coalition became known, advocated the restoration of Catalan autonomy, amnesty for political prisoners, agrarian reform, an end to political blacklists and the payment of damages for property owners who suffered during the revolt of 1934. The Anarchists refused to support the coalition and instead urged people not to vote. (http//www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/SPelections.htm)In the elections of 1936, the forces of reaction suffered a devastating defeat mainly because its management was weak and vacillating. However, its fatal mistake was to ignore the repeated warnings of the Communist Party in honour the election agreement, the reaction to defeat was not taken quietly. T herefore when Franco oncominged on July 18 of 1936, the country was completely unprepared for the attack and the civil war begun.Regional situation (1936 -1939)The regional situation begun much before 1936 however the situation stars to intensify violently in 1921when an army was displace to Spanish Morocco to bring down a rebellion, critics said that was a massacre and that full emphasise how incompetent Spains government was. In the following years, Spain people experience a new regime when King Alfonso agreed that General Primo de Rivera should take control of Spain. He ruled as a military authoritarian until 1930. Riveras approach to leadership was fully supported by Alfonso.However, Rivera did not introduction the classic features of a dictator. He introduced public works schemes building roads and irrigating the land. industrial production increase by three times from 1923 to1930. Rivera also ended the rebellion in Morocco in 1925. (http//www.lacolumna.org.uk/article_astu rian%20uprising.htm)Just afterwards the morocco incident, in 1934the northern province of Asturias arose (Popular Front), not against progress, but for it and against the newly elected right wing government. The Asturias revolt was of enormous significance to the Spanish people.In the first place, it showed the capitalists and land holders that the people were not going to wait further but were going to divide the land and control their jobs.In the second place the Asturias revolt taught the people that to win they would have to expel the government and perform their own laws and traditions.In the third place combating the government make the workers and toilers understand the value of unity in action and the significance of revolution also gave them great experiences in the art of civil war.The defeat of the workers forced the revolutionary identities to take to parliamentary activity in the next election. Anyway, Asturias was at the time a region with great potential for progre ss. In fact, Asturias was among the most industrialised areas of Spain in the 1930s just like Catalonia and Basque (see fig.2) which wanted their independence because of the assortment of employment in Asturias, the traditional competitive unions (CNT National Confederation of Labour and the UGT General Union of Employers), re innovateed members in the industries, agriculture and service sectors. They were prepared when the crisis came. Hence, the present government could not allow the country to split out by giving them the independence, these provinces were actually essential for the country progress and development as a whole taking into consideration its industrialization and geographic location, see map below . http//www.lacolumna.org.uk/article_asturian%20uprising.htmIn summary such regions were more advanced organizationally and industrially comparing with the rest of the country therefore they wanted the independence not just because of its socio-economic advantage but al so to keep their traditions such as benefits (reform), language and habits. Later, the traditional language was prohibited in those acts involving the public administration or the mass media, being only tolerated at some folkloric or clerical activities but in other hand the most important reason was that the people in these regions wanted make themselves free of the oppression and incompetency of the present government and this in fact contributed considerably for the Spanish civil war broke out in 1936.Figure 2 The Spanish map showing the locations of Asturias, Catalonia, and Basque just before the war in 1936 (Frances Lannon, Page 10)Socio-economic situationNot hindering the fact that Spain were already in the middle of political and regional crisis when the World coarse Recession reached Spain the country was upside down, World Wide Recession had led to a dramatic cut in the demand for coal and to reduce be the mine owners have reduced the wages and employees. Simultaneously, the National Federation of Farm Workers was cut in the agrarian reform and as result became involved in a bloody strike in June 1934. The Civil Guard had been called in to deal with strikes in industrial areas in May and September of the same year. On 1st September an attack on a Socialist Womens meeting by the Civil Guard saw 6 people killed. All this was simmering away and by October the region was ready for revolt. The election of a right wing government and their hostility in relation to reforms was the final straw. (http//www.lacolumna.org.uk/article_asturian%20uprising.htm)The liberal-left alliance which has ruled the first Republican government collapsed. This let in a right wing coalition which included ministers from the extreme CEDA (Confederatin Espanola de Derechas Autnomas) party. On the 3rd October, CEDAs effrontery of the Agriculture, Labour and Justice Ministries seemed to point in Fascism by well-grounded means, as elections had done in Germany and Austria. Acros s Spain attempts at a General Strike faltered and failed. http//www.lacolumna.org.uk/article_asturian%20uprising.htmThe past privileges of the Roman Catholic Church were reduced and Priests are now paid by the Roman Catholic Churchs chest. The government and the Roman Catholic Church were do two separate entities which should be like that since the beginning. Religious education in schools was stopped.Many army officers were made to retire early, the wages of those who worked in industry were increased but they were to be paid by the owners of those industries not by the government.Industries had to deal with the lack of energy resources and the weakness of the domestic Spanish market. They were helped out by protectionist policies, which reduced the competition from foreign products. As in so much of Europe, the popular classes were moulded into an industrial proletariat, living and working in inhuman conditions. (http//www.mltranslations.org/Spain/civilwar.htm)Due to all this ci rcumstances the socio-economic situation could be highlighted as one of the main factors that contribute for beginning of the Spanish civil war, the lack of jobs, the poverty, the political regime and the governments abuse of power let the people more susceptive to create a revolt.Religious situationAccin Nacional traced its ideological lineage to the social Catholic movements initiated in the late nineteenth century by Pope Leo XIII. Originally conceptualized in the Rerum Novarum of 1891, social Catholicism presented itself as an alternative to Socialism, arguing for the peaceful coexistence of capital and labour. It argued in favour of social reforms but rejected class struggle and collectivization in favour of social justice and the extension of property ownership, explaining that cooperation more effectively sustained workers rights. The Catholic political intervention make the social Catholicism became the basis for Catholic movements throughout Europe, most notably in France, Germany, Belgium, and Italy, (Leo XIII, Rerum Novarum, 1891).Azaa believed that the Catholic Church was liable for Spains backwardness. He defended the elimination of special privileges for the Church on the grounds that Spain had ceased to be Catholic. Azaa was criticized by the Catholic Church for not doing more to stop the ardent of religious buildings in May 1931. He controversially remarked that burning of all the convents in Spain was not worth the life of a single Republican.The establishment of the min Republic 1931 several reforms suggested the loss of wealth and privilege for the wealthy, the church building and the army. Example Agrarian Law 1932 allowed the distribution of all unworked estates over 56 acres to the peasantry The church and the State was separated, the Jesuit order was expelled (and its assets expropriated), divorce was legalized etc. In the Army 40% of the officer corps was retired, republican officers were appointed and soldiers were now liable to ci vil law (not as before only military law). The progressive alliance of Republicans and Socialists were in power 1931 until 1933 when they were replaced by a more conservative government. CEDA (Confederatin Espanola de Derechas Autonomas). CEDA had been established as a reaction to the Republican policies this was the united right. The governments between 1933 and February 1936 tried to slow down and erode the advances that been made the previous years phalanx situationThe victory of fascism in Spain has for the present time blocked the march to socialism. In making this critique, however, we do not mean to demean its great accomplishments. For after all is said and done, the Communist Party of Spain was the soul of the war, the most heroic and self-sacrificing of all the political parties involved. Without its leadership and support the people of Spain would have been crushed in a few weeks and would not have been able to inflict such heavy losses on the fascists.Mao Tsetung has shown that the fact that objective conditions are right does not automatically insure victory. What is needed in addition is the conscious activity of man that is, how the war is directed and carried out. Our national war against fascism was by nature a just war. The Popular Front enjoyed the overwhelming support of the popular masses. Although the international situation was difficult, never has there been such a display of solidarity with any cause. And yet the war was not won. Hence, the logical ending is that the conscious activity of the Party was misdirected that it did not know the proper way to carry on the war.The government tried to attack those it deemed as having too many privileges in society. But by doing this it angered all those sectors in society that had the potential to fight back the military, industrialists, land owners and the Roman Catholic Church. These four (potentially very powerful bodies) were unwilling to support the republican government in Mad unloo sen. They were also aware that there were countries in Europe that would be willing to give support to their plight as many nations in Europe were scared of communism and Stalins Russia. Fascist Italy under Mussolini would be an obvious ally as would Germany once Hitler had got power in January 1933.In January 1932, a number of army officers tried to overthrow the government lead by Manuel Azana, the summit minister. The attempt was unsuccessful as the army, for now, was loyal to the government after all, it had won the elections fairly and, therefore, had legitimacy. However, a new political party was make called the Ceda. This was a right wing party dedicated to protecting the authority of the Roman Catholic Church and landlords.The government of Azana, having disordered support from the right, also lost support from the left. Two powerful left wing political parties, the anarchists and syndicalists (powerful trade union groups), felt that Azanas government was too middle of t he road. Both wanted a more communistic state and the overthrow of capitalism. Above all, Azana was despised for forming a political union with the middle ground in Spains political life. He was deemed to have betrayed the working class. The extreme left organised strikes and riots in an effort to destabilise the government of Azana.Matters came to a head when in January 1933, 25 people were killed by government troops who were attempting to catch some anarchists near Cadiz. This lost the government a great deal of support among the working class and the socialists withdrew their support from the government. Azana resigned as prime minister and elections were called for November 1933.In this election, the right wing won a majority of support and the largest party in the parliament (known as the Cortes), was the Ceda lead by Gil Robles.The new right wing government immediately over-turned all of the changes brought in by the Azana government. This angered many but especially the Cata lans who had their privileges withdrawn. This was a grave error of creative thinker as the Catalans and Basques had supported the government in the elections. The way ahead for Robles became clear to many an attack on the left wing parties of Spain.It forced the many parties of the left to come together to form the Popular Front. They organised strikes, riots and took part in acts of violence such as derailing main line trains. In 1934 there was a general strike. Coal miners in the Asturias went on strike but were ruthlessly put down by the army lead by General Franco. Spain appeared to be heading for all out chaos. In a last minute attempt to avoid serious trouble, a general election was called for February 1936. In this election, the Popular Front won and Azana, once again became prime minister.However, the government of the Popular Front was a farce after the socialists withdrew their support from it more and more public disturbances occurred and the government had clearly los t control of Spain. In July 1936, a leading right wing politician, Sotelo, was murdered and the right wing politicians and their supporters believed that they were now in serious danger. They wanted to put their faith in a military dictatorship.The military had, in fact, already made preparations for a takeover of Spain. General Franco assumed control of the military. He took control of Spanish Morocco after overthrowing the civilian government there. His next target was to invade mainland Spain, establish a military government there and rid the country of all those involved in left wing politics. The left would have to fight for survival. The civil war started in July 1936. http//www.historylearningsite.co.uk/causes_spanish_civil_war.htmThe emergence and ideological characteristics of Basque and Catalan nationalism in late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Spain are a dramatic expression of conflict between modernity and tradition in the ethnically varied Spanish state. Conf irming Nairs theory of peripheral nationalism, uneven development in Spain during the nineteenth century overlapped with spatially delimited ethnic communities, Catalans and Basques, thus enhancing their ethnic individuation and facilitating the expression of class conflict in nationalist terms. However, the social bases and the ideologies of peripheral nationalism in each region eventually came to reflect the different patterns of development that they experienced and the relative economic power of their capitalist lites. These morphological factors shaped the Basque and Catalan nationalist movements through their influence on class conflict and class alliances within the Basque Country and Catalonia, as well as conflict and alliances between these classes and the Spanish state.Of course, differences between Basque and Catalan nationalism cannot be explained in purely structural terms. The developmental factors I have outlined in this article helped to reproduce longer-term cultu ral and economic processes, which had progressively defined the cultural identity of the upper classes in Catalonia and the Basque Country. Describing and explaining this process, however, exceeds the objectives set for this article.This comparison of Basque and Catalan nationalism shows that overdevelopment does not necessarily lead to bourgeois or other pro industrialization nationalistic ideologies. In contingent he Basque case illustrates that, as long as the leading classes of overdeveloped regions are able to influence state political and economic decisions, they will refrain from the formula of nationalist programs. Moreover, the Basque case shows that in the analysis of peripheral nationalism, scholars should focus simultaneously on the relationships established between the different social classes in the peripheral companionship and the central state and on those established between classes within the peripheral community.In 1936, the main part of the Christian democrat PNV sided with the Second Spanish Republic in the Spanish Civil War. The promise of autonomy was valued over the ideological differences, especially on the religious matter, and PNV decided to support the republican legal government, including member of the Popular Front. Autonomy was granted in October 1936. A republican autonomous Basque government was created, with Jos Antonio Agirre (PNV) as Lehendakari (president) and ministers from the PNV and other republican parties (mainly leftist Spanish parties).conclusionThe Spanish Civil War contributed to bringing about the Second World War most historians argue that the Spanish Civil War was the prelude to the Second World War. Though A.J.P. Taylor, a famous revisionist, has a different opinion (in his classic book The Origins of the Second World War) he argues that the Spanish Civil War was without significant effect in causing the Second World War. He also criticizes the Anglo-French appeasement policy British and French policy, or lack of it, not the policy of Hitler and Mussolini, decided the outcome of the Spanish civil war. The republic had greater recourses, greater popular backing. It could win if it received the correct treatment to which it was entitled by international law foreign arms for the legitimate government, none for the rebels. It could even win if both sides received foreign aid, or if both were denied it.

A Clothing Retail Store In Andhra Pradesh

A Clothing sell retention In Andhra PradeshIntroductionIt is situated in southern coast of India and its capital is Hyderabad. Telugu is the official language and kuchipudi is the commonwealth dance of Andhra PradeshName of the store- SHINNING STAR STOREDescription of clothing retail storeCloth retailing is one of the top retailers in India because direction has become very much popular among youngsters and even middle age. In India western culture is followed nowadays and our country is following their style like anything. fit the owner of clothing retail store is not that easy it requires lot of thinkning and hard work. In this venture we should know the ins and outs of the fashion retail business. The hours of doing go out be Monday to Saturday 10 a.m to 8 p.m . The competitors are shoppers stop , Westside , palem leathers , pantaloons , Bombay store , Max , etc.Environmental scanning of Andhra PradeshI am disruption a clothing retail store in Andhra Pradesh and the city that i obligate selected is Hyderabad .Andhra Pradesh. The retail industry in Hyderabad is on the rise. The reason for choosing this city is that its sixth metropolis in India , development ,advancement of the infrastructure , due to its size and population. The clothing retail store will be free from any political and loving barrier as I am opening according to government policies and society.Retail store identity-The brand name is KELVIN and logoTypes of retailersMy store is a speciality store majority of western and rest is Indian befools . Its for family obtainCompany ownershipMy store is organised as a sole proprietary me and my manager handle in all his administrative and managerial duties of the clothing retail storeVision of the retail store-To sell carrefours according to customers and satisfy their needs to stool long term relationship and to stay in the trade for long run. To be best(p) clothing retailer among other retail store.Mission of the retail store-To sat isfy customers in terms of services and provide them best quality clothes according to their tastes and preferences at cheaper rate than competitors and assortments of all sizes and styles. We believe in providing clarified and superior services and making shopping a relaxed and pleasurable experience.ObjectivesThe primary objective is to provide one-stop-shopping for all the members of a familyTo create shopping environmentTo manipulate shopping convenient.To attain a position in urban realms of HyderabadTo build long term relationship with customersTo gain profitTo ensure that our customers get the best value, quality and satisfaction from using the services granted by my storeGoalsTo become a profitable businessGain profitsto provide them sugared stockSelling clothes according to new fashionGoodwill in the marketEstablishing for a long runTo create customer and seller relationshipTo maximise customersBusiness plan-Without business plan we cant move forward in opening a retai l store. too It involves two sequence and money budget. We need to frame out our business policies like working hours ,rules and regulations, pedigree and need to work out on our advertising and marketing plan as well as employee details ,expansion plans, use of profit, investment and partnership policies.2. Selling products of the retail store-Our products will range from basics to stylish wear down.Womens clothes ,childrens wear ,mens wear ,casual and sports wear .Services-Free deliveryE-retailingCredit card paymentOnline transactionGuideParking facilitiesHelp deskProper assortmentDiscount offers pleasant billing proceduresOccasional offersOne stop shop3.Marketing planAll goods will be purchased according to the customer tastes and preferences and all sizes of men , women and children.Pricing dodgeWe base the product lines that we carry on their reputation and quality as western and Indian wear apparel. Most of our lines come with a suggested retail bell that we will follow. We will provide discounts and special offers seasonal workerly and occasionally. The most important thing is that we will provide them products at cheaper rate than competitors.Promotion strategyIt is through byadvertisingproviding free samplesposters and bannersonline advertisingpamphletsbrand ambassadorradio , etc.Positioning-We will offer name brand western and Indian wear in a larger assortment of styles and sizes that arent always readily available in the mass. To give customers excellent experience through our stores and provide them whole product line and services.BarriersCompetitionInput costInflationLess productive labourIncrease in taxesEconomies of scaleSWOT psychoanalysisStrength-Demographic factorsshop ConvenienceAvailability of resourcesOrganized RetailWeaknesses-New retail storeTaxation hurdleDeveloping supply chainOppurtunities LocationMarket step-upE-RetailingLifestyle and convenient retailingThreats-Competition from shoppers stop,pantaloons,InflationMarket analys is of the retail storeThere are four factors which are taken into amity when market analysis is done for the clothing retail store-target market- I am opening the store in Hyderabad city in suburban and urban areas. As the popularity increases we expect to see an assortment of curiosity seekers, and local residents as well as the seasonal purchases. And for those who find difficulty while buying western and Indian clothes at one place.customers- they will be of high and middle income groupcompetitors shoppers stop , Westside , Bombay store , pantaloons , palem leathers , etc.Fashion- seasonal or the occasional and the latest trends prevails in that city.Market share-Our intension will be to gain 80% market share by focusing on positioning , location , other brands ,promotions, etc.Organisational structure-Owner line managerCashierSalesmen4.Operational plan-LocationI am opening this retail store in HyderabadThere are major factors on which location depends your ability to pay for i t ,land costthe visibility of that location to the target segment you plan to focus on. no. of other clothing retail store in that areaLifestyle of that particular areaDemographic factors like age ,sex ,etc.Competition in that areaThe place is 1000 square feet and has been taken on lease for two years.Key supplier-Supply chain focussing is very necessary because of inventory management so that we will earn maximum if at that place will be no poorage of stock anytime. The clothes will be imported from Delhi and Mumbai.Store layout-We follow the pattern of free form layout as it provides relaxing environment and facilitates shopping and browsing. Products are placed in a systematic manner. The store will be double storeyed on ground floor kids section, 1st floor for womens section and 2nd floor for mens section. Well provide convenient shopping to our customersCredit policy-Being a retail environment we will not be selling on credit well accept change , checks , and all major cred it cards because through there is reduction in bad debts.Merchandise Management SystemThe order received from a marketer are kept in warehouse and inventory is raised when there is shortage of stock . Therefore there is need to keep a genius of total orders received and sale. There is a need to manage the merchandise so as to keep minimum level of stock which should be there all the time in store. To run retail store well we have to look upon our inventory time to time. We should give both the quality and compatibility to customers.Store management-Its very important for the retail store to manage their store. Employees will be encouraged to work in their creative , physical and intellectual boundaries. Duties will be delegated according to strengths and weakness . All decisions are made in-line with the company objectives and employees tasks are delegated based upon their level of expertise , creativity ,etc. Medical benefits are also given to employees . All Entire workforce of the clothing retail store.Owner1 store manager3 cashiers6 salespersonSecurity guard pitch vans, bikes and boysMerchandise will be purchased according to companys mission and customer focus of outfitting all sizes including womens plus sizes , mens big and tall and for kids of 1 day to 16 yrs.I would use the round track for displaying the clothes in the retail store.Human resource management-In clothing retail store we need both skilled and unskilled labour and follow the policy of customer relationship management.I would follow these steps in my clothing retail store-Retail market financialRetail site locationCustomer relationship management (CRM)Information Distribution system.5. Financial planRequirementThere is a need of 5 crores to open clothing retail store . We have planned to open a retail store that is in Hyderabad. Supplement financial backing is also required to work on site preparation , inventory , and operational expenses. The loan amount appears in the long termUse of breedFunds will be used to pay renovation , construction ,sales counter ,painting, carpeting , lighting, dcor display fixtures .We will also purchase inventory , cash register and computer equipments and also an inventory management system and rest will be the operating cost. In future well reinvest rest period profits into company expansion and personnel.Projected cash flowOur business will collect immediate payments from the customer. So it will much likely to the income statement. Our cash flow statement clearly demonstrates our ability to cover all the bills.Projected balance sheetClothing retail store will launch in Hyderabad with an equity of 2 crores and 1crore in loans. Credit amount and suppliers term for inventory will appear in the balance sheet as a short term liabilities. All the other details will also be shown in the balance sheet.Customers on Average/dayExpected Growth on saleSale/DaySale /MonthSale Yearly140*100 on Average140004200005040000Second Year25%175005 250006300000 ternary year25%218756562507875000Expected Break Even Point/storeBreak even analysis has been completed on the basis of average be/prices.The following chart shows what we need to sell per month to break even, according to these assumptionsExpected Break Even Point/storeBreak Even AnalysisPV Ratio=Contribution*100ParticularsAmountSalesSales5040000Variable cost325200035%Contribution1788000BEP Points=Fixed terms/PV RatioFixed Cost13575003826510Net Profit430500Future expectationsIf we will achieve and exceed our sales and profitability goals we will increase the product line and expand our line of brands with those that have been repeatedly requested by our customers.Keys to success of the retail storeTargeting customerAssortments of all sizes to fit the customersAdvertising and promotion in targeted areasLatest trends in the marketValuable customer service

The Metamorphosis :: Example Personal Narratives

The Metamorphosis When I look back over the past few years, I elucidate how much Ive grown and changed. I arrived at Harvard boarding School without any idea of what to expect. I entered my second year of high school as an fair thirteen year-old feeling about a thousand miles from home. My interests at the time were cars, planes, major league basketball, movies and tennis. Midway through my senior year at Harvard embarkment School, my interests have changed dramatically. If there is one common occurrence that takes place for every single person in the diverse student body at Harvard Boarding School, it is that we all grow up much faster for having lived there. I do not know whether this speeding up of the maturing process is generally good or bad, but I definitely have benefited. The classroom has become a whole different realm for me. Before, the teachers and students alike preached the importance of learning, but it was implicitly patent that the most important concern was g rades. At school s name teachers genuinely believe that learning is the most importance objective and deeply encourage us to fall in with each other and make use of all resources that we may find. In fact, in a certain class this year, my teacher assigned us to realize every day of the week to discuss a certain book there were only two requirements in this preparation- we had to maximize our sources, gleaning from everything and everyone in the school, but we were not allowed to in truth look at the book. As a result, I know more about that book than any other that I have actually read. It is teaching methods such as this that ensure that we will learn more. Indeed, this matter of thinking has been one of the most important aspects of my experience. Whether in Physics or English, I m required to approach every problem and idea independently and creatively rather than just regurgitate the teacher s words. In discussion with fellow students both inside and outside of class, the com plex thoughts flowing through everyone s brain is evident. However, I believe that the most important concepts that I have espoused in being independent of my parents for half of each year, deal with being a cosmopolitan person. The school s faculty and students are conscious about keeping all of the kids concern from being based on the school.

Working at the Restaurant :: Management Business

Leonardos eating house is located on 7575 Merriman Rd. in Romulus, Michigan. This restaurant is decently next to Detroit Metro-Airport, so that tends to bring in a lot of business. Leonardos started out as a carry-out restaurant and gradually moved into a sit-down restaurant. After three years of being in front of the complex on 7575 Merriman,, the owner built a new restaurant in the back of the complex. The new restaurant is 8,000 square feet with a ginmill area and a banquet room, which was not at the old building. Leonardos Restaurant has been up and running now for seventeen years and depends mostly on the travelers for its business. Leonardos is a family owned business which two brothers share the self-control together. At Leonardos it is imperative that every employee does their job and contributes so that the business can run smoothly. The name Romulus comes from the story in Greek mythology of gibe Romulus and Remus, sons of war, Mars. The story tells that these boys were being cast out by their uncle being left to die, only to be found and cared by a she-wolf until humans discovered the babies and raised(a) them as their own. The name was chosen due to the population of wolves in this area during the 1800s. Romulus has a population of 23,616, which was recorded in 1996, its city color is green and white, and it is the kinsfolk of Detroit Metro-Airport. Romulus is home to a wide variety of businesses and industry due to its transportation assets, a strong economy and skilled labor force. When I opened the sanguine wood double doors of Leonardos Restaurant, I saw to my right the bar area with high chairs outlining the bar. Behind the bar is a huge reflect that stretches across the whole back of the bar. Aliening the mirror is an abundance amount of alcohol lining up across the mirror. To the right of the wall of alcohol is a cappuccino and espresso maker. The bar itself has an evergreen counter top with flushed wood linin g across it. When moving into the bar area, I seen that there were booths and tables both an evergreen color with the cherry wood trimming outlining the booths and tables.

El Salvador :: essays research papers

I woke up on a Friday morning to catch my plane sand to Los Angeles. I was coming back from a 3 week vacation from El Salvador. I was really sick the morning I arose to eat a delightful breakfast. But it wasnt a fever or a cold. It was more of a confusing and stressful hangover. The night before, I was out doing some false things that I should have never done. There came times that I wish I would have never been in that respect or did some of the things that I did that night. For this reasons I could never go back to El Salvador until Im eighteen.     On Thursday morning, my uncle Gerber, A.K.A "baby food", woke me up to help him jump start a car. He was loss to sell the car, but he needed help to start up the car and send it in for repair. Even though I was on vacation, to my uncle, there is never time for a vacation. I had to help him change two tires and give the car a tune-up. But like most uncles, he rewards our potent work. He took me to a liq uor store near by and bought me a big tequila bottle.      It was about 1200 p.m when we came across my uncles takeoff rockets. A sixteen year old-girl named Ocity and her uncle Jose. They were around the same age and we took them to our house. Ocity invited her friend over to come visit for a bit. But, what I didnt notice was that my uncle took Ocity upstairs while I kept company to Jose and her friend " La Gorda." As you can see the name says it all. she was 59" and weigh in around 250 lbs, or so she said. Jose was not a drinker but La Gorda was. She challenged me to a drinking competition.     She got a cup from the kitchen and poured the alcohol in the cup. She filled it half way and told me to take a "shot." I told her "Estas jugando con migo verdad?" She responded "No, asi tomamos el tequila aca en este pais." I was surprised, but I wouldnt let a girl take me out like that. I took the cup and drank i t all. She took a shot. It went on back and forth till it was my turn for like the tenth time.

Earths Ecosystem in Danger :: essays research papers

The study, by 1,360 experts in 95 nations, said a rising military personnel population had dirty or over-exploited two thirds of the ecological systems on which spirit depends, ranging from clean air to fresh water, in the past 50 years."At the heart of this assessment is a stark warning," said the 45-member board of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment."Human activity is putting such strain on the natural functions of Earth that the ability of the planets ecosystems to sustain next generations can no longer be taken for granted," it said.Ten to 30 percent of mammal, bird and amphibian species were already threatened with extinction, according to the assessment, the biggest review of the planets life support systems."Over the past 50 years, humans have changed ecosystems more rapidly and extensively than in any comparable time in human history, largely to meet rapidly growing demands for food, fresh water, timber, fibre and fuel," the report said."This has resulted in a substantial and largely irreversible loss in the kind of life on earth," it added. More land was changed to cropland since 1945, for instance, than in the 18th and 19th centuries combined.Getting worse"The harmful consequences of this degradation could grow significantly worse in the next 50 years," it said. The report was compiled by experts, including from U.N. agencies and international scientific and development organizations.U.N. Secretary-General Kofi Annan said the study "shows how human activities are causing environmental damage on a massive scale throughout the world, and how biodiversity -- the very basis for life on earth -- is declining at an alarming rate."The report said there was designate that strains on nature could trigger shrewd changes like the collapse of cod fisheries off Newfoundland in Canada in 1992 after years of over-fishing.Future changes could bring abrupt outbreaks of disease. Warming of the Great Lakes in Afri ca due to climate change, for instance, could create conditions for a spread of cholera.And a build-up of nitrogen from fertilizers washed off farmland into seas could spur abrupt blooms of algae that choke fish or create oxygen-depleted "dead zones" along coasts.It said deforestation often led to less rainfall. And at some point, escape of rain could suddenly undermine growing conditions for remaining forests in a region.The report said that in 100 years, global warming widely hellish on burning of fossil fuels in cars, factories and power plants, might take over as the main source of damage.